[ ** Ultimate Grammar Tutorial **]

Hello Dimers, in this thread, I’m going to be explaining grammar and how useful it can be when used effectively. I know many people don’t see grammar as useful, but in all honesty, it is the most useful thing you can have when you are posting on any forum or website as often as most of you post on DesiDimes.

What is Grammar?

In linguistics, grammar is the set of structural rules that govern the composition of clauses, phrases, and words in any given natural language. The term refers also to the study of such rules, and this field includes morphology, syntax, and phonology, often complemented by phonetics, semantics, and pragmatics. Linguists do not normally use the term to refer to orthographical rules, although usage books and style guides that call themselves grammars may also refer to spelling and punctuation.

Why should I use Grammar? The purpose of good grammar is to ensure that what you write is correctly comprehended and is easy and enjoyable to read. Common Grammar Mistakes Taken from: http://litreact...om

Who and Whom

This one opens a big can of worms. “Who” is a subjective — or nominative — pronoun, along with “he,” “she,” “it,” “we,” and “they.” It’s used when the pronoun acts as the subject of a clause. “Whom” is an objective pronoun, along with “him,” “her,” “it”, “us,” and “them.” It’s used when the pronoun acts as the object of a clause. Using “who” or “whom” depends on whether you’re referring to the subject or object of a sentence. When in doubt, substitute “who” with the subjective pronouns “he” or “she,” e.g., Who loves you? cf., He loves me. Similarly, you can also substitute “whom” with the objective pronouns “him” or “her.” e.g., I consulted an attorney whom I met in New York. cf., I consulted him.

Which and That

This is one of the most common mistakes out there, and understandably so. “That” is a restrictive pronoun. It’s vital to the noun to which it’s referring. e.g., I don’t trust fruits and vegetables that aren’t organic. Here, I’m referring to all non-organic fruits or vegetables. In other words, I only trust fruits and vegetables that are organic. “Which” introduces a relative clause. It allows qualifiers that may not be essential. e.g., I recommend you eat only organic fruits and vegetables, which are available in area grocery stores. In this case, you don’t have to go to a specific grocery store to obtain organic fruits and vegetables. “Which” qualifies, “that” restricts. “Which” is more ambiguous however, and by virtue of its meaning is flexible enough to be used in many restrictive clauses. e.g., The house, which is burning, is mine. e.g., The house that is burning is mine.

Lay and Lie

This is the crown jewel of all grammatical errors. “Lay” is a transitive verb. It requires a direct subject and one or more objects. Its present tense is “lay” (e.g., I lay the pencil on the table) and its past tense is “laid” (e.g., Yesterday I laid the pencil on the table). “Lie” is an intransitive verb. It needs no object. Its present tense is “lie” (e.g., The Andes mountains lie between Chile and Argentina) and its past tense is “lay” (e.g., The man lay waiting for an ambulance). The most common mistake occurs when the writer uses the past tense of the transitive “lay” (e.g., I laid on the bed) when he/she actually means the intransitive past tense of “lie" (e.g., I lay on the bed).

Continual and Continuous

They’re similar, but there’s a difference. “Continual” means something that’s always occurring, with obvious lapses in time. “Continuous” means something continues without any stops or gaps in between. e.g., The continual music next door made it the worst night of studying ever. e.g., Her continuous talking prevented him from concentrating.

Envy and Jealousy

The word “envy” implies a longing for someone else’s good fortunes. “Jealousy” is far more nefarious. It’s a fear of rivalry, often present in sexual situations. “Envy” is when you covet your friend’s good looks. “Jealousy” is what happens when your significant other swoons over your good-looking friend.

Nor

“Nor” expresses a negative condition. It literally means “and not.” You’re obligated to use the “nor” form if your sentence expresses a negative and follows it with another negative condition. “Neither the men nor the women were drunk” is a correct sentence because “nor” expresses that the women held the same negative condition as the men. The old rule is that “nor” typically follows “neither,” and “or” follows “either.” However, if neither “either” nor “neither” is used in a sentence, you should use “nor” to express a second negative, as long as the second negative is a verb. If the second negative is a noun, adjective, or adverb, you would use “or,” because the initial negative transfers to all conditions. e.g., He won’t eat broccoli or asparagus. The negative condition expressing the first noun (broccoli) is also used for the second (asparagus).

May and Might

“May” implies a possibility. “Might” implies far more uncertainty. “You may get drunk if you have two shots in ten minutes” implies a real possibility of drunkenness. “You might get a ticket if you operate a tug boat while drunk” implies a possibility that is far more remote. Someone who says “I may have more wine” could mean he/she doesn’t want more wine right now, or that he/she “might” not want any at all. Given the speaker’s indecision on the matter, “might” would be correct.

Whether and If

Many writers seem to assume that “whether” is interchangeable with “if." It isn’t. “Whether” expresses a condition where there are two or more alternatives. “If” expresses a condition where there are no alternatives. e.g., I don’t know whether I’ll get drunk tonight. e.g., I can get drunk tonight if I have money for booze.

Fewer and Less

“Less” is reserved for hypothetical quantities. “Few” and “fewer” are for things you can quantify. e.g., The firm has fewer than ten employees. e.g., The firm is less successful now that we have only ten employees.

Farther and Further

The word “farther” implies a measurable distance. “Further” should be reserved for abstract lengths you can’t always measure. e.g., I threw the ball ten feet farther than Bill. e.g., The financial crisis caused further implications.

Since and Because

“Since” refers to time. “Because” refers to causation. e.g., Since I quit drinking I’ve married and had two children. e.g., Because I quit drinking I no longer wake up in my own vomit.

Disinterested and Uninterested

Contrary to popular usage, these words aren’t synonymous. A “disinterested” person is someone who’s impartial. For example, a hedge fund manager might take interest in a headline regarding the performance of a popular stock, even if he’s never invested in it. He’s “disinterested,” i.e., he doesn’t seek to gain financially from the transaction he’s witnessed. Judges and referees are supposed to be “disinterested.” If the sentence you’re using implies someone who couldn’t care less, chances are you’ll want to use “uninterested.”

Anxious

Unless you’re frightened of them, you shouldn’t say you’re “anxious to see your friends.” You’re actually “eager,” or “excited.” To be “anxious” implies a looming fear, dread or anxiety. It doesn’t mean you’re looking forward to something.

Different Than and Different From

This is a tough one. Words like “rather” and “faster” are comparative adjectives, and are used to show comparison with the preposition “than,” (e.g., greater than, less than, faster than, rather than). The adjective “different” is used to draw distinction. So, when “different” is followed by a preposition, it should be “from,” similar to “separate from,” “distinct from,” or “away from.” e.g., My living situation in New York was different from home. There are rare cases where “different than” is appropriate, if “than” operates as a conjunction. e.g., Development is different in New York than in Los Angeles. When in doubt, use “different from.”

Bring and Take

In order to employ proper usage of “bring” or “take,” the writer must know whether the object is being moved toward or away from the subject. If it is toward, use “bring.” If it is away, use “take.” Your spouse may tell you to “take your clothes to the cleaners.” The owner of the dry cleaners would say “bring your clothes to the cleaners.”

Impactful

It isn’t a word. “Impact” can be used as a noun (e.g., The impact of the crash was severe) or a transitive verb (e.g., The crash impacted my ability to walk or hold a job). “Impactful” is a made-up buzzword, colligated by the modern marketing industry in their endless attempts to decode the innumerable nuances of human behavior into a string of mindless metrics. Seriously, stop saying this.

Affect and Effect

Here’s a trick to help you remember: “Affect” is almost always a verb (e.g., Facebook affects people’s attention spans), and “effect” is almost always a noun (e.g., Facebook’s effects can also be positive). “Affect” means to influence or produce an impression — to cause hence, an effect. “Effect” is the thing produced by the affecting agent; it describes the result or outcome. There are some exceptions. “Effect” may be used as a transitive verb, which means to bring about or make happen. e.g., My new computer effected a much-needed transition from magazines to Web porn. There are similarly rare examples where “affect” can be a noun. e.g., His lack of affect made him seem like a shallow person.

Irony and Coincidence

Too many people claim something is the former when they actually mean the latter. For example, it’s not “ironic” that “Barbara moved from California to New York, where she ended up meeting and falling in love with a fellow Californian.” The fact that they’re both from California is a “coincidence.” “Irony” is the incongruity in a series of events between the expected results and the actual results. “Coincidence” is a series of events that appear planned when they’re actually accidental. So, it would be “ironic” if “Barbara moved from California to New York to escape California men, but the first man she ended up meeting and falling in love with was a fellow Californian.”

Nauseous

Undoubtedly the most common mistake I encounter. Contrary to almost ubiquitous misuse, to be “nauseous” doesn’t mean you’ve been sickened: it actually means you possess the ability to produce nausea in others. e.g., That week-old hot dog is nauseous. When you find yourself disgusted or made ill by a nauseating agent, you are actually “nauseated.” e.g., I was nauseated after falling into that dumpster behind the Planned Parenthood. Stop embarrassing yourself.

How can I practice my grammar?

Practicing grammar depends on your current level of grammar, if you believe it is as worse as it can get, you might want to try something like Basic Skill Practice Games. If you think you can do alot better than that, you might want to try something more advanced like Advanced Grammar Exercises. If you can’t be bothered doing either of those or you think your just too good for them… I’d suggest doing some writing. It is the most fundamental method for practicing grammar but at the same time it is the most effective. Why do you think writers have such good grammar?

Basic Skill Practice Games

http://classroom.jc-schools.net/basic/la-gramma...

Advanced Grammar Exercises

http://www.learn4good.com/languages/toefl/toefl...

How do I use commas?

Step 1: The listing comma

The most common use of the comma is in place of the word “and” or “or” in a list of words. For instance: “My favorites bands are U2 and Muse and The Cheeky Girls,” sounds clumsy and a bit breathless. Try writing, “My favorite bands are U2, Muse and The Cheeky Girls.”
You shouldn’t use the word ‘and’ after a listing comma, unless it helps clarify the meaning of a sentence: “My favourite bands are U2, Muse, and Chas and Dave”
In this case, the extra and after the listing comma helps you make it clear you’re not a fan of one band called ‘Muse and Chas’ and another called ‘Dave.’

Step 2: The joining comma

A joining comma is used to join two complete sentences together, so that, “You must hand in your essay by Friday.” And, “You will receive a mark of zero.” Becomes: “You must hand in your essay by Friday, or you will receive a mark of zero.” Notice you must use a joining word after a joining comma such as: and, or, but, yet or while. So the following sentence is wrong: “Bangladesh is one of the world’s poorest countries, its annual income is only $80 per person.” In this case you should use a semi-colon instead of a comma.

Step 3: The gaping comma

A gaping comma is used to indicate that some words are missing from a sentence. So the sentence, “Some of us wanted to spend the night in a club; others wanted to spend the night in a bar.” Becomes, “Some of us wanted to spend the night in a club; others, in a bar.” The comma after the word ‘others’ shows that the words “wanted to spend the night” have been taken out.

You can use listing, gaping and joining commas together, for instance:
“Italy is famous for her composers and musicians, (Listing) France, (gaping) for her chefs and philosophers, (joining) and Poland, (gaping) for her logicians and mathematicians.”

Step 4: The bracketing comma

The word comma comes from the Greek for, “a piece cut off”, and as the Greeks invented commas, it’s safe to say that the bracketing comma is the oldest form of comma ever used.
A pair of bracketing commas is used to indicate a weak interruption that doesn’t disrupt the smooth running of the sentence. As in, “She groped for her cigarettes and, finding them, lit one.” Which could also be written as, “She groped for her cigarettes and lit one.” The words within the bracketing commas can be taken out of the sentence without disrupting its meaning. Be careful about this point, as the following example shows, it’s easy to get it wrong:
The people in the queue, who managed to get tickets, were very satisfied.
written with commas, this means: ‘The people in the queue were very satisfied’, when what it’s trying to say is:
The people in the queue who managed to get tickets were very satisfied.

If your weak interruption comes at the start or end of a sentence, it is acceptable to use just one bracketing comma: because you cant start or end a sentence with a comma. So the sentence: I think we can say that, all in all, we’ve done very well.
Could be written as: All in all, I think we can say that we’ve done very well.
Or:
I think we can say that we’ve done very well, all in all.

Step 5: Weak interruptions

Though, because, since, after, before, if, when and although are all words that set you up for a weak interruption, like this:
Although I like it here, I am going to have to leave soon.
If you use any of these words at the start of the sentence, it’s acceptable to use a comma later on:
Because there’s no public transport, I am working from home today.
Note that the final section is a sentence in its own right (I am working from home today), but it is preceded by a qualification.
While it looks the same, this is different to a bracketing comma: you cant take out the section before the comma without changing the meaning of the sentence.

Step 6: The interjecting comma

This is the comma to indicate a pause in the sentence:
Stop, or I’ll scream.
You should only really use one interjecting comma in a sentence, otherwise you risk over-punctuating.
Stop, or I’ll scream, and shout, at all the people, passing by.

Step 7: Speech commas

Before you use quotation marks, you should insert a comma like this:
She turned round and said, “I don’t want to go there.”

How do I use exclamation marks?

Step 1: Introduction

The exclamation mark is used instead of a full stop at the end of a short phrase or sentence that expresses very strong feelings. They are also known informally as a bang or a shriek. Here are some examples:

That’s amazing!

Jai, stop that!

I love cress sandwiches!

Aaarrgh!

If a writing is trying to represent ordinary speech – in a novel, for instance – then examples like these are quite normal. However in formal writing exclamation marks usually appear out of place, and using them frequently will give your work a breathless, almost immature, quality.

Step 2: Exclamations and statements

Exclamation marks also often appear after an exclamation beginning with how or what:

How well did he take that goal!

What a mistake the goalkeeper made!

These sentences are both exclamations, and not statements. If they were statements, they would simply end with a full stop and not an exclamation mark

That goal was very well taken.

The goalkeeper made a bad mistake.

Step 3: Surprise!

If a statement is very surprising, you can use an exclamation to draw attention to the fact:

After weeks of planning he finally managed to break in and crack the safe. It was empty!

Step 4: Interruptions

Exclamation marks can also be used to draw attention to an interruption in a sentence, for example:

On the (rare!) occasion he bought his wife flowers, he forgot to take the price tag off.

Step 5: Formal writing
Apart from these points you should generally avoid using exclamation marks in your formal writing. Don’t use an exclamation mark unless you’re certain it’s necessary – for example there’s no need to use one in the statement:

Do not use exclamation marks in formal writing!

And never use two or three of them in a row!!!

While this sort of thing is fine in personal letters it is completely out of place in formal writing.

How do I use colons & semi-colons?

Step 1: Colon introduction

A colon introduces an explanation or elaboration of what has come before it: like this. To use a colon, you should be satisfied that the two sections of your sentence aren’t complete sentences in their own right, and the information in one section explains the other section:
Africa is experiencing a terrible problem: perpetual drought.
Or:
Perpetual drought, poverty, corruption: these are all terrible problems Africa is experiencing.

Step 2: Titles

Colons are also used to separate a book title and sub-title, as in:
Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead mans chest.

Step 3: Ratios

You can use a colon to indicate a ratio, “The man/woman ratio is 1:4!!” In formal writing this isn’t normally acceptable. So the sentence would be written as:

There are four women to every man here.

Step 4: Semi-colon introduction

A semi-colon links two complete sentences which work as sentences on their own; it indicates that there is some sort of relationship between them.

Step 5: Stylish semi-colons

Using a semi-colon is always a literary (stylistic) choice, for instance:
It was the best of times; it was the worst of times.
Could also be written as:
It was the best of times, and it was the worst of times.
Or:
It was the best of times. It was the worst of times.

Step 6: Complete sentences

To use a semi-colon, you should be satisfied that the sentences are too closely related to be separated by a full stop, and one sentence isn’t a direct explanation of the last.
You can do this in list form too:
1. The sentences are too closely related to be separated by a full stop;
2. One sentence isn’t a direct explanation of the last.

Step 7: Marking important breaks
There is one circumstance where you can use semi-colons to break up a very long sentence, to help it be understood. Consider the following sentence:

In Chad, where the famine still continues, western aid workers, in spite of their efforts, are unable to operate, and the people, starving, and desperate, are flooding to refugee camps.

You can use a semi-colon instead of comma to mark the most important breaks in the sentence, just to aid comprehension, like so:

In Chad, where the famine still continues, western aid workers, in spite of their efforts, are unable to operate; and the people, starving, and desperate, are flooding to refugee camps.

Step 8: Joining words

Some words require a semi-colon before their use. It is important to remember though that certain joining words are more appropriate to commas:
Women’s conversation is cooperative, while men’s is competitive.
Or:
Women’s conversation is cooperative; however men’s is competitive.
Words like however, thus, therefore, consequently, nevertheless and meanwhile should all be preceded by a semi-colon, while words like and, but, yet and while should be preceded by commas.

How do I use an apostrophe?

Step 1: Missing letters

Apostrophes are primarily used to indicate missing letters. Whenever you are taking away letters to shorten a word, or merge two words, put an apostrophe in their place> This is how we distinguish between words like he’ll and hell, she’ll and shell.

And it works with years too:
The summer of ‘69

It’s important to remember the meaning of what you are writing. A common mistake is to write:
You could of won already. When we really mean: You could have won already. Which can be written as: You could’ve won already.

Step 2: Ownership issues

An apostrophe also shows who owns what in a sentence. For instance:
The boy’s dinner. (The dinner belonging to the boy)
And it’s the same if the word ends with an s:
The bus’s arrival.

Apostrophes are also used for something that is owned by more than one person. When the boy’s dinner is written as the boys’ dinner, it means the dinner is shared between 2 or more boys.

This could cause massive confusion if not done correctly:

Large children’s playground (a large playground for children)
Large childrens’ playground (a playground for large children)

It works the same with time:
One week’s time (in the time of one week)
Two weeks’ time (in the time of two weeks)

And quantity:
One pound’s worth (worth one pound)
Two pounds’ worth (worth two pounds)

Step 3: Exceptions to the rule

There are a few exceptions to the rules, where the ownership apostrophe and missing letters apostrophe seem to clash. While they are exceptions, getting these wrong is the best way to annoy a punctuation-stickler. Watch out for words like:

It’s (it is) As in: It’s a lovely day today! Or: It’s got to be done today (it has)
Its (belonging to it) As in: Dont pull its tail.
Who’s (who is) Who’s doing the counting? or Who’s been to Newquay?
Whose (who it belongs to) Whose shop is this?
You’re (you are) You’re never going to believe this
Your (belonging to you) Where’s your coat?

Step 4: Improper English

Finally, we also use apostrophes to show that someone isn’t speaking ‘proper’ English:
Gone shoppin’

How do I use parentheses & square brackets?

Step 1: Bracketing parentheses

Parentheses are the posh name for what most of us call brackets – they’re also known as round brackets. Parentheses can be used in the same way as a pair of dashes or a bracketing comma: They indicate a strong interruption in the flow of the sentence. The words within parentheses should represent an aside from the writer to the reader:

Although Barcelona is one of the most sociable places on earth (especially if you enjoy sitting in cafes) you will rue the day you forgot your manners there.

You will notice that everything inside the brackets could be removed and the remaining sentence still makes sense:

Although Barcelona is one of the most sociable places on earth you will rue the day you forgot your manners there.

Step 2: Extra information

You can include extra information in brackets:
The rock star Kurt Cobain (1967 – 1994) was a major influence on a whole generation of musicians.

Step 3: Options

Sometimes, particularly in forms or official documents, it may be necessary to use parentheses to illustrate options:
Your teacher(s) may not always know the name(s) of your sibling(s).

Step 4: Listing

If you are writing a list and you want to use either numbers or letters to mark each separate point, they should appear in parentheses:

To get into the club you should make sure you are
(a) not wearing trainers
(b) not visibly drunk, and
© on the guest list.

Step 5: Square brackets in quotes

You should only ever use square brackets to clarify a point, or insert additional information into a direct quote:

“These two nations [Russia and America] seem to sway the destinies of half the globe.”

The original quote did not make it obvious which two nations are referred to, but the addition of the square brackets is a good way of making that clear.

You can also use square brackets to add words to a quote, or to replace words without changing the original meaning of the sentence:

“I’m sure it [was] always like that.”

Step 6: Full stops and brackets

Always remember that a full stop always falls outside the brackets at the end of the sentence.

How do I use question marks?

Step 1: Introduction

The question mark is a punctuation mark used as part of a direct question, and replaces the full stop at the end of a sentence. For example:

What is the capital of India?

Why is the grass green?

Where do babies come from?

Does anyone have a pencil?

Step 2: Quotations

If the question used is a direct quotation, repeating the speaker’s exact words, then a question mark is still used. For example:

“How on earth did you manage that?” she asked

“Do you find it funny?” asked the young man

However, if the question is indirect and does not repeat the speaker’s exact words then a question mark is not used.

She asked how on earth I managed this.

The young man asked if I found it funny.

As both these sentences are now statements only a full stop is used.

Step 3: Questioning uncertainties

There is also one other minor use for the question mark: it can be used to show that something in a statement is uncertain. If this is the case then the question mark is inserted into the sentence, inside parentheses, next to whatever it is that is being questioned. For example:

Whether fact or fiction (?) the chronicles of King Arthur feature a number of distinct characters.

Here the question mark suggests that the reading of the name is potentially doubtful

Another example is:

The famous poem is attributed to Catullus (?84BC – ?54BC)

The question marks before the dates in this example indicate the years given for his birth and death may be inaccurate.

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Hope that helps someone living on this planet.